Lives and Legacies

Tag: dogs

  • Of Mice and Men: A brief exploration of rodents’ history in America

    A pest is a broad term for any organism that spreads disease, causes destruction, or is generally a nuisance. In the 21st century, we still constantly battle pests from squirrels who chew through your internet cables or spiders who set up house in the high corner of the ceiling, watching and judging you to evil mosquitoes that ruin outdoor activities and leave you with itchy red welts that no amount of calamine lotion will help. It is a fight as old as time. 

    I wanted to investigate one pest in particular: rodents. Why were mice and rats present in colonial homes? Why this was an issue? What were some of the methods the Washington’s would have used to combat these furry creatures? And how we know without a doubt that Kenmore and Mount Vernon had rodent tenants.

    The Suspects

    House Mouse
    Black Rat aka Roof Rats
    Brown Rat aka Sewer Rat

    The house mouse, or Mus Musculus, originating on the Asian and Indian subcontinent, has become the most successful invasive species in recent history. [1] They arrived in this country with the trading ships and settlers that came to the New World in the 16th century. [2][3]

    Similarly, the black rat, aka roof rat, boarded ships for their westward journey around the same time as the seafaring mouse. [4]  Their presence is noted by the residents of Jamestown in November of 1608, stating, “When the shippes departed al the provision of the store but that the President had gotten was so rotten with the last somers rain, and eaten with rats and wormes” [5] The notorious brown rat or sewer rat, who seems to currently enjoy the cities of Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York, arrived a little later than their brethren setting foot in the new country around the 1750s.[6]

    America, the land of plenty…of garbage

    There is no nice way to say it, but living in colonial America was usually gross. Housing wasn’t always the greatest, sometimes being very rudimentary. Food storage was typically simple and easily accessible. But one of the biggest problems (or benefits if you are a rodent) was the lack of systematic waste disposal. [7] [8] Garbage (including human waste) was a personal problem often solved by opening the window and chucking out.

    We have abundant archeological information from Ferry Farm and Kenmore that supports these habits. A large part of Ferry Farm has been excavated over the decades, leaving clear evidence that the Washington family and their enslaved workers disposed of waste right in the backyard…off the porch.    Large amounts of artifacts were discovered and mapped, showing the proximity to the house, meaning the garbage was close, and rodents love trash.

    Map showing the concentration of animal bones excavated from the midden at the rear of the Washington house at Ferry Farm.

    At Kenmore, the garbage situation seemed to be a little more regulated because the grounds and buildings were planned. The main house was made of brick, surrounded by two wood-built structures containing the kitchen and laundry. During excavations of the kitchen yard (between the house and kitchen), there were minimal artifacts, but a dump site was found west of the kitchen. The location could be accessed by the window or by walking around the side of the building and contained a pig jaw, animal bones, bone-handled knife, and other objects. The kitchen is about 30 feet from the house, with the slave passage doors opening right onto the kitchen yard…plenty close enough for an enterprising rat or mouse. 

    Bad House-guests

    So, why are rodents bad to have in your house? Disease, contamination, destruction, smells, and lots of poop. [9]  Rats can squeeze through an opening the size of a quarter. Mice only need the size of a dime…so they will be everywhere in your house and will bring friends. [10] Rats and mice are spreaders of disease from rat-bite fever that spreads through bacteria in the rodent’s saliva, urine, or droppings to the bubonic plague transmitted by the lice hitching a ride on their fluffy friend.[11][12]  While today, rodents are relatively low on the list of dangerous disease spreaders in an era of limited medical knowledge and treatments, it could be a matter of life or death.

    Contamination and destruction are these creatures’ modus operandi. They get into everything, period. They will eat almost any human food, chewing through any storage system, leaving behind chaos; they have even been known to eat soap and glue. [13]  While venturing through the house, they are constantly urinating and pooping, which is smelly, can create mold growth, and should never be consumed. [14] In their quest for food, they often destroy household items, eating books, chewing clothes, gnawing on mattresses, and even nesting in furniture. All of which is not only annoying but expensive to fix or replace. [15][16]

    But one of the most offensive things a mouse or rat can do is die in your walls. Take it from Colonel Landon Carter, who had to deal with a rat dying behind his wainscoting, informing everyone, “Wainscoted rooms have their conveniences [inconveniences?] as a dead rat has been stinking behind mine in the hall at least six days and is now intolerable in spite of burning tar…this dead rat stunk prodigiously.” [17] 

    Colonel Landon Carter, not too fond of rats. Source: Wikipedia

    Fighting Back

    Surprisingly, colonists used many of the same techniques we do today to eliminate these pests. Pesticides or chemical warfare was widespread, with many recommendations and recipes dating back to the 15th century. I found recipes containing helliberry leaves, bitter almonds, “seade of wild cowcumbers,” colluentida, hemlock seed, aconite or wolfsbane, and arsenic.[18]   I don’t know many of those ingredients, but apparently, they kill rodents nicely. 

    Hemlock seed, the notorious plant which was used to execute Socrates for impiety and corruption of the youth.
    Wolfsbane an
    extremely poisonous plant that should be handled with care.

    Another method was traps, which are common today. They were pretty popular, and there were many advertisements in the Virginia Gazette from sellers touting that their mouse traps just arrived from England. [19] There are also many instructions for building easy mouse traps like the “deadfall” or “noose” traps, which are as horrible as you imagine. [20][21]

    Deadfall mouse trap, c. 1800-1850 Source: V&A Collection

    Lastly, one method that is making a comeback is animals, both cats and dogs.[22][23] Cats have been used for ages as rodent killers and are good at their job. [24]  A 14th-century manual suggests that if you have problems with vermin, “have as a good supply of cats.”[25]  The famous diarist Samuel Pepys wrote in December 1660, “my boy taking a catt home with him from my Lord’s, which Sarah hath given him for my wife, we being much troubled with mice.”[26]  There are even modern programs like Barn Buddies that save feral and skittish cats and adopt them out as “rodent control technicians.”[27]

    And dogs, mainly terriers, have been used to clear mice and rat infestations for centuries, just like cats. Ever the dog lover, George Washington had terriers at Mount Vernon, which probably helped immensely around the plantation.[28]  Today, cities like Chicago and New York use these canines in modern rat hunts.[29] It seems the skills of the terrier will always be in demand. 

    Little Historians

    Lastly, how do we, without a doubt, know that there were rodents at Kenmore and Mount Vernon? Rat nests. Rat nests are usually found in walls or under floorboards, and they not only prove these guys resided in the houses as long as the families themselves, but also provide a fascinating historical glimpse into the material lives of the occupants.

    Mount Vernon documented the finding of a rat nest in 1949 behind the wall in Washington’s bedchamber. When dissected, it included buttons, paper, rope, yarn, a whole woman’s shoe, and fabric matching Washington’s bed curtains.[30]  

    Objects from rat nest found in the wall of Washington’s bedchamber, 1949. Source: Mount Vernon Instagram

    Similarly, in 1989, a rat nest was found in Kenmore while investigating the walls and floorboards. We recently picked apart the bundle to find fabrics, fibers, thread, yarn, newspapers, bones, nutshells, and wood splinters. The remnants in the nest were dated no later than the early 20th century due to dates on newspaper fragments and the absence of plastics.

    In conclusion, rats and mice have been a constant annoyance since they first set foot in this country; unfortunately, that is still somewhat true. These enterprising rodents have adopted America as their own and we as fellow citizens must learn to live together despite our often distaste for each other.

    Fun Fact – We don’t want to malign rats more than they have been throughout history so we would like to add that rats make good pets.  They are quick learners, highly trainable, very clever, and have excellent memories.  They are now being trained to detect land mines, diseases like tuberculosis, and even rescue earthquake survivors.

    Heather Baldus

    Collections Manager

    [1] Agwamba, K. D., & Nachman, M. W. (2023). The demographic history of house mice (Mus musculus domesticus) in eastern North America. G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics, 13(2). https://doi.org/February 2023

    [2] Agwamba, K.D., & Nachman, M.W. (2023)

    [3] Agwamba, K.D., & Nachman, M.W. (2023)

    [4] Newman, M. H. (2001). The vermin -killers: Pest control in the early Chesapeake [Doctoral Dissertation, Willam & Mary University]. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd/1539623387/, pg 111.

    [5] Newman, M.H. (2001), pg. 47.

    [6] Tapia, A. (2021, October 23). America’s 10 Most Rat-Infested Cities. Newsweek. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.newsweek.com/americas-10-most-rat-infested-cities-1638136

    [7] Newman, M.H. (2001), pg. 17.

    [8] Newman, M.H. (2001), pg. 46.

    [9] (2014, January 6). Of Mice and Men: Rodent Infestations Plague Nearly A Third of Americans. National Pest Management Association. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.pestworld.org/news-hub/press-releases/of-mice-and-men-rodent-infestations-plague-nearly-a-third-of-americans/

    [10] (2014, January 6). Of Mice and Men.

    [11] (2019, January 18). Transmission. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov/rat-bite-fever/transmission/index.html

    [12] (2019, July 31). Ecology & Transmission. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov/plague/transmission/index.html

    [13] Introduced Species Summary Project

    [14] (2022, December 27). How a Mouse Infestation Can Cause You Thousands in Damage. Spidexx. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.spidexx.com/blog/2022/december/5-things-you-need-to-know-about-mouse-infestatio/

    [15] Newman, M.H. (2001), pg. 17.

    [16] (2022, December 27). How a Mouse Infestation Can Cause You Thousands in Damage

    [17] Newman, M.H. (2001), pg. 84.

    [18] W, W. (1680). The Vermin-Killer (pp. 4-9). London: Samuell Lee.

    [19] Unknown, U. (1766, July 25). Just Imported and to be Sold by the subscribers at their store in Norfolk. Virginia Gazette. https://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/CWDLImages/VA_GAZET/Images/PD/1766/0084hi.jpg

    [20] Newman, M.H. (2001), pg. 119.

    [21] Feild, Rachael. 1984. Irons in the Fire: A History of Cooking Equipment. Ramsbury,

    Marlborough, Wiltshire: The Cromwood Press

    [22] Pasley, J. (2023, March 18). How the rat population in New York City grew by 800% and infested the city in less than 65 years. Yahoo News. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://news.yahoo.com/rat-population-york-city-grew-143000754.html

    [23] Cass, J. (2017, November 10). Chicago needs good dogs to handle the rat epidemic The Chicago Way. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.chicagotribune.com/columns/john-kass/ct-met-rats-terriers-kass-1112-story.html

    [24] Newman, M.H. (2001), pg. 115.

    [25] Bayard, T. (1991). A Medieval Home Companion Housekeeping in the Fourteenth Century (1st ed., pp. 97-98). Harper Collins Publishers.

    [26] Pepys, S. (1983). The diary of Samuel Pepys : A new and complete transcription (p. 325). London: Bell.

    [27] (n.d.). Adopt a Barn Cat. Barn Cat Buddies. https://www.barncatbuddies.org/

    [28] (n.d.). Dogs. George Washington’s Mount Vernon. http/www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/dogs/

    [29] Cass, J. (2017, November 10). Chicago needs good dogs to handle the rat epidemic The Chicago Way. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved September 7, 2023, from https://www.chicagotribune.com/columns/john-kass/ct-met-rats-terriers-kass-1112-story.html

    [30] Mount Vernon [mount_vernon]. “In 1949, preservation staff removed a rat’s nest from behind a wall in the Washingtons’ bedchamber..”* Instagram, May 19, https://www.instagram.com/p/CsbIc9sOO_2/.

  • How the Enlightenment Transformed Dogs into Pets

    I like many people in America have a dog. His name is Edward. Edward is a large black lab who sheds everywhere, snores like a grown man, and has a borderline obsession with socks. He is my best friend and has been my constant companion for nine years. I consider him a member of my family. It’s true that he doesn’t physically contribute to the running of the household. He never picks up his toys and more than once he has thrown himself a ticker-tape parade in the living room with newspaper to celebrate his fabulousness. Still, he is the center, the heart, of my home. Edward’s value comes from him being himself and providing unconditional love, loyalty, and lots of laughs.

    Edward 1
    Edward as a puppy.

    Edward 2
    Edward was adopted at eight-weeks-old after an injury to his back leg, which could not be saved. He is now a healthy nine-year-old tri-paw, who loves to talk to people about adopting special needs dogs.

    The sentimental view of dogs as faithful and adoring companions is a pretty recent phenomenon. For much of our history, human and canine relationships have been one of cooperation, not out affection, but rather survival. This noticeably changed around the end of the 18th century and two of the main reasons are philosophy and middle-class urbanity.

    Enlightenment and the Rise of Sentimentality
    The Enlightenment’s ideas dominated the 18th century world and gave rise to a range of principles like liberty, equality, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. These concepts were based on the belief that the primary source of authority and knowledge is reason. The Enlightenment ushered in an age of fundamental social, scientific, and philosophical change.

    One of these deep philosophical shifts led people to start thinking of animals as valued in their own right rather than based on their usefulness to humankind. The idea of sensibility or the perception of others’ emotions, particularly among the vulnerable, became quite fashionable. Having a pet, like a dog, became an acceptable way to demonstrate this sensitivity. By the end of the 18th century, the representation of the dog as faithful, loyal, and adoring was a fixture in popular culture. Broadsheets and magazines regularly published stories extolling the noble virtues of the canine and even noted their ability to think, problem solve, and communicate with people.

    This admiration for the dog was endorsed by many notable writers and philosophers of the time. Poet Alexander Pope said that “histories are more full [sic] of examples of fidelity of dogs than of friends”. Clergyman Humphrey Primatt became an advocate for animal’s right in 1776 when he published what essentially amounted to a declaration of rights for animals. Even the esteemed Benjamin Franklin wrote “There are three faithful friends—an old wife, an old dog, and ready money.”

    Urbanity and the Middle-Class
    Shifts in philosophical thinking were not the only reason that dogs began to make their way from the fields into people’s living rooms. Colonial America, by the late 18th century, saw the rise of more affluent urban communities, a development that made keeping pets more feasible and desirable. In prosperous cities, the middle-class found pets as a way to express their status. Instead of having hunting dogs like the gentry to show wealth, they had lap dogs like pugs, pomeranians, papillions, shih tzus, malteses, or King Charles Spaniels. These dogs were usually adornments for the lady of the house. They were given bejeweled collars and carried around to mimic the style of English aristocracy. This view of dogs as adornment was not a particularly sophisticated or humane trend but, once the dog was in the house, affection grew as their qualities became more apparent and they began to be treated more as family. Dogs were no longer an accessory but a companion and sometimes even a confidant.

    Best Buds
    This evolution of dogs from ornament to friend can be seen in two notable examples: newspaper advertisements and portraiture.

    The first newspaper printed in Virginia was the Virginia Gazette in 1736. It became quite common to see “lost or stolen” ads placed by people looking for their dogs. Colonists placed ads with substantial rewards for the return of their cherished pets. William Finne, advertised in 1777 that his, “very remarkable black shaggy dog of Pomerania breed, called Spado,” had been “Lost or Stolen,” and he was offering the sum of twenty dollars for its return. Likewise, when a bulldog named Glasgow, who could usually be found snoozing behind the Governor’s Palace in Williamsburg, went missing his owner placed an ad in the paper asking for his return with a twenty shilling reward. These two ads perfectly illustrate the era’s changing attitudes toward the family dog and their position in the house. Like today, when the family dog went missing, it created a void and, like us, early Americans were willing to publicly pronounce their concern and love for the missing pet and offer a significant reward for their return.

    Spado
    Announcement in the Friday, March 7, 1777 edition of the Virginia Gazette offering a reward for a lost or stolen dog named Spado.

    Portraiture is another example that illustrates the people’s increasing affection for the family dog in the 18th century. Today, we all love taking pictures of our dogs doing pretty much anything. Facebook feeds and social media accounts are filled with the cute antics of owners and their puppies. In the 17th and 18th century, there was a similar trend of having pictures to show off the family pet. More families in the second half of the eighteenth century had their portraits painted and many of these included a cherished pet. This showed families made a concerted effort to include the dog in their documentation of their domestic life.

    The Peale Family by Charles Willson Peale
    The Peale Family by Charles Willson Peale (1809). Argus, the family dog, can be seen in the lower foreground. Public domain. Credit: Wikipedia

    While these theories and examples are not definitive proof of the changing relationship between humans and pets from one of survival to affection, they do illustrate a great attention starting to be paid to the dog. Dogs’ position during the eighteenth century did move from outside the residence to inside the house as a family member. There is still a great amount of research that needs to be done on the subject but the abstract nature of verifying emotional attachments and affection is difficult. There is one thing for certain. Once you let a dog into your life it will change forever and you can’t help but fall in love with them whether it’s the 18th century or the 21st.

    Heather Baldus
    Collections Manager