Lives and Legacies

Tag: Ferry Farm

  • Pull Over!! The Virginia Highway Historical Markers of The George Washington Foundation

    As you drive down the road, sometimes, there are enough signs to make your head spin.  It can be tempting to just drive by these stark white cast iron road markers with black text when you see them.  Even so, sometimes you can’t help but let a word or a phrase catch your eye, sparking curiosity as you continue on with your travels.

    “Highway markers near Seven Pines, VA” courtesy of the Library of Virginia. (Virginia State Chamber of Commerce)

    The Virginia Highway Marker program is the oldest one of its kind in the United States (Virginia Department of Transportation, n.d.).  In 1927, State Route 1 was freshly paved and ready for new motor vehicles to coast down from Washington, DC to Richmond. (Virginia Department of Transportation, 2006).

    Drivers were given a red carpet to travel straight to what many viewed as the birthplace of our nation, George Washington’s Mount Vernon. Thousands began their pilgrimage. Hotels, motels, gas stations, and attractions began to pop up along the path.

    “Moorestown High School Class of 1927” posing in front of Mount Vernon

    With all these new travelers who appreciated their state’s history, William E. Carson of the Conservation and Economic Development Commission erected several markers along the road, designating historic areas of interest and turning the roads into an attraction. (Virginia Department of Transportation, n.d.).

    Fabricating the markers was a beast to tackle since the traditional method of construction would have been granite.  Unfortunately, the stone was a bit too pricy and was also found to be difficult to read at the lightning-fast 25 mph speed limit.  Aluminum was an option for its lightweight and non-corrosive nature, and in fact, many early signs were manufactured from the metal, although they were quickly found to crack easily.  They were replaced with cast iron, and cast metal has been the preferred method of construction ever since (Rachal, 1949).

    Two of our three markers were first seen in the early years of the program. The oldest of our three was also the one that had the least amount of time in the light.  The Accokeek Iron Furnace marker (E-49) is located off Courthouse Rd in Stafford near an archaeological dig site owned by the George Washington Foundation. The modern iteration was erected in 1998.

    Accokeek Iron Furnace: The Principio Company constructed the Accokeek Iron Furnace nearby about 1726 on land leased from Augustine Washington (father of George Washington), who became a partner. After Washington’s death in 1743, his son Lawrence inherited his interest in the company and the furnace. When he in turn died ten years later, his share descended first to his brother Augustine Washington Jr. and later to William Augustine Washington. The archaeological site is a rare example of an 18th-century Virginia industrial enterprise. It includes the furnace location, the wheel pit and races, a retaining wall made of slag, an extensive slag dump, and mine pits.

    This text is not what was written prior to 1930. Those signs were brief, containing only a sentence or two for motorists to read as they drove by.  Between 1927 and 1930, though, cars sped up.  Where they were once going 25 mph, they were soon going 40 mph or even rocketing 50 mph down the highways!

    Trying to read the markers while driving quickly became impossible. The Commission’s solution? Publish a booklet with each highway marker printed and arranged neatly for passengers to read as they traveled.  All you had to remember was the marker’s number or title.  The first of these booklets were distributed in early 1930, free of charge (Rachal, 1949).

    This edition contains the earliest record of the Accokeek marker, then titled “Ancient Iron Furnace,” and reading only: “Here on Accokeek Run were iron mines and a furnace in which Augustine Washington, father of George Washington, began to smelt iron in 1727.”

    Unfortunately for our little marker, this was the last time it could be featured in the booklet. Disaster struck in late 1930. Engineer P. W. Snead wrote to the Commission on December 19th to report that the sign was found that morning, knocked from its post, and shattered.  The commission wrote back a few days later, asking for the aluminum pieces to be gathered and sent back since the factory would refund them for the parts.  (Library of Virginia Archives, 1930). The Accokeek marker was not restored until 1998, 68 years later, as part of a federal grant, according to the manager of the highway marker program, Jennifer Loux.

    The “Washington’s Boyhood Home” marker is also found in the booklet’s first edition, and its modern counterpart is now at the entrance to Ferry Farm.  Although there are no records of the sign being damaged prior to its replacement in 1997, after exposure to the elements for almost 70 years, it was probably time for a refresh.

    Alternatively, the motivation for the marker’s replacement (likely from the same federal grant) may have come from historical inaccuracies. The original text of the marker reads:

    “Washington’s Boyhood Home: At this place, the Ferry Farm, George Washington lived most of the time from 1739 to 1747. Here, according to tradition, he cut down the cherry tree. Washington’s father died here in 1743. The farm was his share of the paternal estate.”

    We now believe that the Cherry Tree story was likely an exaggeration or a myth, and so the verbiage was changed on the modern marker. Many old highway markers contained inaccurate information, as is often the case with many historical resources. As technology and research evolve over time, so does what we know. Another example of this never made it to the press, but early drafts of the marker’s text include his attendance at the “Old Field School.” We have since learned that there is no documentation of Washington ever attending a formal school in his life.

    The current marker was installed in 1997, the same year the George Washington Foundation obtained the property, and the sign continues to greet visitors to this day.

    George Washington’s Childhood Home: The Washington family moved to a plantation here in 1738 when George Washington was six years old. Along with his three brothers and sister, young Washington spent most of his early life here, where, according to popular fable, he cut down his father’s cherry tree and uttered the immortal words, “I cannot tell a lie.” His father, Augustine, died here in 1743, leaving the property to him. His mother, Mary Ball Washington, lived here until 1772 when she moved to a house in Fredericksburg that Washington bought for her.

    Our third marker is different, having not been placed until 1995.  At this point in time, the highway marker program had been passed around, with different organizations all bearing the burden of putting up new signs and maintaining the old ones.  It first passed hands in 1949 to the Virginia Department of Highways, who, after a year, handed the responsibility off to the Virginia State Library.  In 1966, it was traded again and is now operated by the Virginia Department of Historic Resources in collaboration with the Department of Transportation (Virginia Department of Historic Resources, n.d.).

    Former director of the Kenmore Association (now the George Washington Foundation) Vernon Edenfield wrote to the DHR proposing the marker. The Association paid for the manufacturing out of pocket. You can now visit it along Caroline St, four blocks from Kenmore, in front of Fielding Lewis’ storefront.

    Kenmore: Four blocks west stands Kenmore, built in 1775 by Col. Fielding Lewis for his wife, Betty, sister of George Washington. Near here, between Kenmore and the Rappahannock River, stood Lewis’s warehouses and docks. Kenmore’s intricate plasterwork is the finest in the country. Among 19th-century owners and occupants were Samuel Gordon, who named it Kenmore, and William Key Howard Jr., who restored and embellished the mansion’s plasterwork. Washington and other Revolutionary leaders often visited, and during the Civil War, Union troops used it as a hospital. The Garden Club of Virginia, starting in 1929, rehabilitated Kenmore’s gardens as its first restoration project.

    Although you might think after nearly 100 years of recording and presenting history that the Virginia Highway Marker program has run out of ideas, you can’t be further from the truth.  New markers are being planned constantly, and more gaps in history are being filled each year. In Fredericksburg alone, there are plenty more markers commemorating the city’s rich history.  If you feel there is an opportunity for a new marker somewhere, you can submit a proposal through the DHR’s website.

    The unveiling of the new Freedom Rides marker in 2021 at the site of the old Greyhound bus depot on Princess Anne St, which was proposed by staff and students from the University of Mary Washington

    History can be found anywhere if you know where to look, and the Virginia highway markers are a testament to that.  Be sure to keep an eye out for them on your next drive!

    Sarah Alden

    Manager of Visitor Services and Interpretation

    Bibliography

    Laiacona, J. (2021, May 4). Marker Furthers UMW Mission on Freedom Rides’ 60th Anniversary. Retrieved from University of Mary Washington: https://www.umw.edu/news/2021/05/04/marker-furthers-umw-mission-on-freedom-rides-60th-anniversary/

    Library of Virginia Archives. (1930). Virginia

    Mount Vernon. (n.d.). Historic Preservation at Mount Vernon. Retrieved from George Washington’s Mount Vernon: https://www.mountvernon.org/preservation/historic-preservation-at-mount-vernon#main-content

    Prats, J. J. (2010, October 23). State Historical Markers Numbering Plans. Retrieved from The Historical marker Database: https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=2

    Rachal, W. M. (1949). Historical Markers on Virginia Highways. State and Local History News, 151-153.

    Virginia Department of Historic Resources. (n.d.). Historic Markers. Retrieved from Virginia Department of Historic Resources: https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/programs/highway-markers/

    Virginia Department of Transportation. (2006). A History of Roads in Virginia: “The Most Convenient Wayes”. Richmond: Virginia Department of Transportation Office of Public Affairs.

    Virginia Department of Transportation. (n.d.). Historical Markers. Retrieved from Directional Signing Program: https://vaidsp.com/historicalmarkers/

    Virginia State Chamber of Commerce, a. L. (n.d.). Highway markers near Seven Pines, Va. Picture Collection.

  • Behind the Glass at Ferry Farm’s Archaeology Lab

    The observer stands behind glass and watches. The one being watched picks up the object with her bare hands turns it carefully to see every angle, then sets it down to record data into her computer. Then she washes her hands, unwraps another object – and eats it!

    Visitors to George Washington’s Ferry Farm can explore more than the museum gallery, or the Washington House replica, or newly constructed Quarter and Cellar outbuildings. They can tap into their people-watching curiosities and observe real archaeologists in a laboratory researching, washing objects, making labels, cataloguing, repairing ceramics – and even eating lunch!

    One extraordinary thing about Ferry Farm is that its archaeology lab is viewable and accessible to the public. The mysteries of history lie out in the open, sitting out on tables or in trays ready to be washed and categorized. Like zoo-goers, visitors are mesmerized by the goings-on behind the glass, and likewise, our archaeologists love interacting with the public, glad to answer questions or even pose for a picture.

    Recent mends of enameled creamware behind one of several Archaeology Lab observation windows.

    It may be an interesting coincidence, but as Mary Washington drives the story of Ferry Farm and Historic Kenmore was saved by a group of intrepid women, Ferry Farm’s archaeology laboratory is also dominated by women who are passionate about what they do and more than willing to share their findings with guests and professional peers. Who are these interesting women, and what exactly happens in the lab? Its main inhabitants are Lab Supervisor Mara Kaktins and Field Directors Judy Jobrack and Danielle Arens. Also, part of the team (but not in the fishbowl) are Research Archaeologist Emma Schlauder and Director of Archaeology Dave Muraca. Dave, the only man in the department, led the team that discovered the foundation of the Washington House.

    There would be no lab work if there was no field work, and every summer for about 11 weeks, a carefully planned dig occurs on the grounds of George Washington’s Boyhood Home. Rich in artifacts, the land has yielded over 800,000 since the 1990’s. Finds date from indigenous, colonial, Civil War, and a sequence of farms throughout the 20th century. As Dave Muraca has said, “I would never recommend having a Civil War battle on your archaeological site. There are five successive farms out there, one on top of each other. In that way, it’s very complicated and hard to take apart.” That said, the fieldwork is not easy, but incredibly, each season, they find thousands of artifacts that will need to be mapped, processed, washed, bagged, catalogued in the database, labeled, stored, and researched.

    Washed artifacts waiting to be bagged and catalogued.

    Typical finds include ceramic sherds, window glass shards, architectural pieces, household items, mortar, sandstone, personal items, pipes, wig curlers, buttons, personal adornment, and indigenous and faunal (animal remains). Objects popular with the public include a Masonic pipe bowl, cufflinks engraved with foxes and “Tally O,” a chamber pot, and even 20th-century items that indicate children used to live on-site, such as Matchbox cars, a toy motorcycle, or a doll’s head. Observers are also surprised to learn that 21st-century trash is catalogued because it was unearthed, and someday that too will be a part of Ferry Farm’s history.

    It’s important to note that Ferry Farm doesn’t dig exhaustively. While archaeologists are certainly concerned with the past, they also make concessions for the future, leaving areas untouched for future generations to dig using as-yet not invented technology. Ground penetrating radar has not been used much because of all that has happened on the land since Washingtons’ time. The main emphasis is feature-chasing – looking for structures such as the Washington House, cellar, kitchen, the Quarter, and more. No land feature will be recreated without knowing exactly where it stood.

    A unique quality of Ferry Farm’s Archaeology Department is that lab and field duties are not segregated; the same amazing team works both in the lab and field. This creates an intimacy with the artifacts that may not be present elsewhere. One day in the field equals three working days in the lab, processing, interpreting, and analyzing all the data from the artifacts. The first step is turning the field data into a format that’s digestible for record-keeping, end-of-year reports, and future Ferry Farm archaeologists. In the field, a site grid in five-foot increments is established and laid out to track where the finds are. Within that grid, context numbers are assigned to specific soil layers and features. A context is essentially a 5’ x 5’ address that notes the horizontal and vertical location of artifacts, noting spatial distribution where items are concentrated. In the lab, context maps are made from each grid unit, and the maps are put together to create the stratigraphy of a dig site.

    Leaded glass takes on a blue hue under UV light.

    Artifacts that come in are brought to the Wet Lab and washed with water in a tub or colander using tools such as toothbrushes, pipe cleaners, or dental picks. One might wonder if there are special precautions for handling artifacts, and interestingly, controversy swirls over whether artifacts should be handled with gloves or not. Rubber gloves are worn during lengthy washings to keep hands from getting too waterlogged. It turns out wearing gloves for analysis proves more damaging since touch sensitivity is reduced and gloves are prone to ripping. Items being examined have been surrounded by the elements for years, so oils from hands are not likely to harm artifacts any further.

    Next to the Wet Lab is the Conservation Lab, where acetone might be used to remove glue from previously mended artifacts. It’s equipped with a vent hood for fumes and the archaeologists wear masks for safety. They often create tableware replicas for the Washington House display, which might require the use of spray paint.

    Very well-designed and equipped, the lab was created by archaeologists for archaeologists. Their equipment includes a light table, a Dremel, a fine water screen for the field, and a UV light to identify leaded glass. For further testing, the department may contract out to other labs, such as the University of Eastern Michigan, with DART mass spectrometry capable of identifying organic materials.

    After artifacts are entered into the database and bagged with tiny labels indicating their project number and context, they are either put in the study collection or housed in cabinets or a storage room. With almost a million artifacts in the collection, the boxes stacked in the storage room resemble a miniature version of the ending scene in Raiders of the Lost Ark.

    Boxes of artifacts stacked in the storage room resemble a miniature version of the ending scene in Raiders of the Lost Ark.

    While one cannot put a value on tiny sherds of 18th-century ceramics, a rusted hinge, or an old button, Kaktins says, “Everything is priceless because of the information gleaned from it.” Archaeology at Ferry Farm is the driving force behind the stories shared with visitors. It informs where the buildings go, reveals the long-forgotten secrets of inhabitants, and intrigues visitors as they glimpse into the past.

    Lori Pikkaart

    Marketing & Communications Manager

  • No Nails? No Problem! The Construction of the Great Oak Pavilion

    What do you get when you have a canoe, tools, and a dream team of builders? The Great Oak Pavilion! Okay, maybe the canoe wasn’t completely necessary, but it is a very interesting part of the construction of the Great Oak Pavilion. Many visitors at Ferry Farm have questions about this building and how it came to be.  Did George Washington build it? How did it get here? And what is it all about?

    The Great Oak Pavilion

    For starters, contrary to popular belief (mostly by our younger visitors), George Washington did not build the Pavilion. Construction on the building began in 2005 through a collaborative effort of the Virginia Military Institute, Timber Framers Guild, and the George Washington Foundation, who together built a much-needed classroom space for the foundation. How, you might ask, did these forces come together? It just so happened that longtime foundation supporter Dr. Grigg Mullen was also a member of the Timber Framers Guild and a professor of Civil Engineering at VMI. Together with Matt Webster, the GWF Director of Architectural Restoration, Dr. Mullen and the team designed the Great Oak Pavilion. He even had his students help construct the building over their spring break!

    Looking at the plans
    Branding from the builders

    While it wasn’t built in the 18th century, many of the pavilion’s construction techniques reflect those that would have been used during that period. These techniques allow the pavilion to fit seamlessly within the landscape. As a self-proclaimed architecture nerd, I can’t just leave it at that, so let’s go over a few building techniques. Next time you visit, see if you can spot them!

    One of the major things you may notice is that no nails or metal plates are used in constructing the building’s frame. In fact, nails are only used to attach the wooden shingles and siding, just as it would have been done in the colonial period. Instead, the timbers are connected using traditional joinery techniques, where each piece of wood is cut in a specific way so that the pieces fit snuggly together – sort of like a puzzle piece. The “puzzle pieces” can be very elaborate or simple, it all depends on the function of the joint.

    Mortise and tenon joints are commonly used joints throughout the Pavilion. They are created by cutting a slot (mortise) in one timber and then reducing the wood on another timber to create a tab (tenon). The tenon fits into the mortise to create a strong, stable compression joint.  

    Creating the mortise
    Carving the tenon
    Completed joint

    Another type of joint, the halved and bridled scarf joint, is also used in the Pavilion. These connect timbers, increasing the length of a beam. Notches are cut into the beams in this joint, which then fit inside the overlapping timbers. Wooden pins provide extra security.

    Finished halved and bridled scarf joint in Pavilion
    Halved and bridled scarf

    The 18th-century techniques don’t stop there! The design of the Pavilion is modeled after Kenmore, using the same support system for the roof. The construction of the 2005 truss system, known as a king post truss, is the same system used at Kenmore when it was built in the early 1770s.

    Pavilion rendering
    King post truss in Kenmore attic
    King post truss in Pavilion

    Now, don’t think I forgot about the canoe part of the story. Remember how I mentioned the construction occurred over spring break? Well, it just so happened to be a very rainy spring. So rainy in fact, that the area where the builders were working and camping for the week flooded. That didn’t stop them, though. They just loaded up their wares in a canoe and paddled back and forth to the site. That’s dedication!

    While the Great Oak Pavilion may not have been built by George Washington, it demonstrates how the George Washington Foundation and its supporters can come together to make great things happen. In other words, teamwork does indeed make the dream work.

    Danielle Arens

    GWF Archaeologist

    References

    National Park Service (2001). Historic American Timber Joinery A Graphic Guide.

  • Expanding Ferry Farm:  Preparing For The Long Winter In The Cellar House

    If you have visited Ferry Farm recently or follow us on social media, you may have noticed the construction of two buildings near the Washington House. These new structures represent those that stood in these spots during George Washington’s time and were constructed using 18th-century methods. Identified through archaeology, their reconstructions allow us to tell better the stories of the people who lived and worked at Ferry Farm. We have previously blogged about the Quarter, a building for housing enslaved individuals owned by the Washingtons.  For this blog, we will look at an integral structure located behind the Washington dwelling: the Cellar House.

    The Cellar House

    What is a cellar house, you may ask?  While explaining it to my 7-year-old son, I told him it is neither a cellar nor a house (by modern standards).  At this point, he threw up his arms and gave me up for an imbecilic parent.  However, this structure was extremely important for large farms in the 18th century.  Picture a simple timber and daub (fancy word for hardened clay) building with four walls, one door, high rafters, no windows, and a three-foot-deep pit beneath its floorboards.  It is not fancy or decorative by any standards, yet this building holds preserved food that feeds dozens of people at Ferry Farm during seasons when fresh food is unavailable. 

    Location of the Cellar House on the Ferry Farm property

    Let’s do a brief overview of food preservation during the Washington time period since it has already been touched on in previous blogs. Keeping food from going bad varies from region to region, depending on your climate (combinations of cold, wet, dry, or hot).  The hot and humid months in Virginia posed quite a problem for colonists.  These conditions do not lend themselves to easy food preservation.  Plainly speaking, the East Coast Southern States drew the short straw when it came to keeping food consumable in the long term.  As they say, “Where there’s a will, there’s a way,” and Virginians had a wide variety of cards in their deck for keeping food from rotting.  Salt, sugar, wood ash, alcohol, vinegar (which was formerly alcohol), and other substances were utilized along with methods including smoking, fermenting, and dehydrating.  However, even the best food preservation methods are useless if the resulting food is not stored correctly. 

    This simple brick structure is possibly a unique example of a decorated outbuilding built solely to serve as a root cellar on the Eastern Shore of Virginia. Source: The Virginia Department of Historic Resources

    The cellar house could store many different types of foods and beverages, depending on where one kept them in the building.  The rafters were ideal for cured meats such as hams, keeping them high and dry.  Hooks on the walls held bunches of drying herbs, garlic, and onions.  The shelves were perfect for baskets and small crocks of food, while the floor was sturdy for storing large casks or jugs of ale and cider, sacks of grain, and bushels of hardy vegetables and fruits. The pit beneath the floorboards, a glorified ‘cellar,’ was a few degrees cooler in the hot months and a few degrees warmer during the cold season.  However, the difference between spoilage and edibility could hinge on maybe 10 degrees, making the subfloor pit essential for colonists who needed to keep some food cooler in summer but warmer (not freezing solid) in winter. Basically, the role the cellar house played varied by the seasons as a revolving door of foods came and went. 

    Inside of Cellar House
    Inside of Cellar House

    When archaeologists at Ferry Farm excavated the area underneath and around where the cellar house would have been, we found artifacts indicative of such a structure.  Namely, very few items would have been found inside and around a dwelling, such as tea and tablewares, byproducts of meals, and valuable personal items.  Large storage vessels, metal hooks for hanging food, and wrought nails and daub used to build the structure dominate the cellar house artifacts.  The only notable personal items recovered were fragments of smoking pipes.  That’s right, the smoke break was a thing even among enslaved workers stacking food inside the cellar house. 

    Ceramics from the Cellar House
    Faunal finds from the Cellar House
    Glass finds from the Cellar House

    The cellar house is currently fully constructed, but we have yet to populate it with all of the storage vessels, food, smoking pipes, and other accouterments of a storage building.  Eventually, visitors will be able to look into this building and take a trip back to the mid-eighteenth century with crocks, jugs, bottles, sacks, barrels, and baskets full of food and drink.  All of which will be informed by the historic records and the artifacts recovered by our archaeologists, as with all the reconstructed buildings at Ferry Farm.  Then, perhaps when I show the building to my son, he’ll see its importance: part pantry, part colonial refrigerator, and all cellar house. 

    Mara Kaktins

    Archaeologist & Lab Manager

  • Cowrie Shells: Cultural and Economic Ties in the 18th-Century Atlantic World 

    Figure 1: Ferry Farm cowries

    Many readers will undoubtedly recognize these two artifacts (Fig. 1). Known as cowrie shells, these artifacts have become synonymous with slavery and serve as identifiers for the presence of free and enslaved Black individuals in the Americas. Still, the role of cowries in the 18th century goes far beyond that of a marker.  

    Origin 

    Cowries (Cypraeidae), a taxonomic family of sea snail, live throughout the world (Fig. 2). However, the species with the most relevance to the 1700s reside in the Indo-Pacific region, particularly in the waters around the Maldives. They include Monetaria annulus (alt. Cypraea annulus, Annulus Linnaeus) and Monetaria moneta (Fig. 3). Even if your Latin proves non-existent, each species’ genus, along with M. moneta’s epithet, easily identifies the original role cowries played in human hands – money.  

    Figure 2: Monetaria monetaKwajalein Underwater
    Figure 3: M. moneta (L) and M. annulus (R) shells in their natural forms
    Barabara Heath

    Economics and Culture in West Africa 

    Centuries before the 1700s, West Africa thrived as a region of independent kingdoms and tribes. With these groups engaged in trade, they required a shared currency that served as a medium of exchange and a store of value. In choosing cowries as currency in the fourteenth century, West Africa continued a long history of groups throughout the world using shell money. Through pre-existing trade routes to the Indo-Pacific, West Africans could easily import the shells via other parts of Africa and had them transported across the Sahara. As the cowries used did not reside in West Africa and proved difficult to forge, the market had built in protections against hyperinflation and counterfeits.  

    Figure 4: Modified cowries strung togetherNational Museum of African American History & Culture

    Once in West Africa, the shells served as the basis of the region’s economies. Still, the shells took on several cultural roles. To keep cowries on hand, the shells often underwent modifications, including slicing off the rounded side of the shell or piercing them (Fig. 4). This allowed for stringing them together and weaving into hair or onto clothing. While done for practical reasons, this led cowries to enter the world of personal adornment. With this, their role expanded to symbols of status, fertility, and beauty while further appearing on ceremonial garb (Fig. 5). 

    Figure 5: Benin Bronze plaque; 16th-17th century. The warriors on either side of the central figure wear helmets decorated with cowries
    British Museum

    Atlantic Trade Routes 

    Europe and Africa had a long history of trade and exchange networks prior to the late 1400s, but the boom of global exploration led to an immediate escalation of these market connections. With European nations expanding their territories abroad and seeking to gain resources not found within their borders, they developed a need to break into the African markets while establishing permanent trade posts in the region. To achieve this, Europeans needed to supply goods that were in demand, and their minds set upon cowries.  

    Map by Adrian Kitzinger from Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shore of the Sahara
    West African Kingdoms and Trading States
    Map centered on the Atlantic Ocean with colored arrows showing movement of Enslaved Africans to the Americas, Raw Materials from Americas, and Manufactured goods from Europe Map showing the primary movement of Enslaved Africans, raw materials, and manufactured goods

    While an item of currency and self-adornment to West Africans, cowries became a commodity in the hands of European, and later American, merchants. With cowries, merchants could navigate the local economy and barter for desired goods. Inevitably, this included kidnapped Africans. In his memoir, Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745-1797), a famed writer and abolitionist, recalled how one enslaver sold him to another for 172 “little white shells” while still in Africa. An examination of eighteenth-century shipping records reveals that cowries ranked amongst the most common goods transported to West Africa and used to trade for captives (Fig 6). For Africans who then faced the Middle Passage, they forcibly traveled aboard these same ships that in turn provided West Africa with the currency driving the economy and their enslavement — cowries.   

    Figure 6: List of goods imported to the Isle of Man via Rotterdam for trade in Africa, 1761
    Manx National Heritage

    Cowries in the Americas 

    Indo-Pacific cowries arrived in the Americas through several carriers, but ultimately all traveled on slave ships. In trading cowries to West Africa, foreign merchants supplied both types even though the market preferred M. moneta. As such, they often had leftover M. annulus which remained onboard as cargo and ballast when the ships continued their trans-Atlantic journeys. Once in the Americas, some captains elected to dump or sell off the remaining cowries rather than transport them back across the Atlantic. Cowries additionally arrived in the Americas on the bodies of kidnapped Africans. While common practice involved stripping captives in Africa, primary accounts report individuals retained beads and shells in their hair and as necklaces. Enslavers further distributed beads, and likely shells, as pacifiers during the Middle Passage. 

    Once in the Americas, cowries largely remained within Black communities though they did face geographical restrictions. For Virginia, archaeological distribution of the shells, mainly M. annulus, places them within the Tidewater region. Higher counts of shells appear in urban areas (Yorktown = 252) while plantations typically only have a few. Although Virginia’s current archaeological cowrie count falls above 353, this remains too few to support the traditional role as currency. Instead, the shells continued in roles of adornment and ritual with added symbolism of cultural loss, memory, and survival. Outside random finds in areas associated with enslavement, cowries recovered in the Americas have derived from burials, spirit caches, and sub-floor pits (Fig. 7). 

    Figure 7: Necklace recovered from an enslaved burial ground at Newton Plantation, BarbadosJerome Handler

    At Ferry Farm 

    Over the course of our twenty-plus year excavation, two cowries have appeared at Ferry Farm. Found in contexts located around the Washington House, including one in a root cellar, our shells represent M. annulus and have undergone modification to allow for stringing or weaving (Fig. 8). As with findings in previous studies, we believe these shells took on cultural roles through self-adornment. Despite not knowing the identity of the shells’ owner(s), the cowries provide enough information to form an interpretation of who they belonged to and how they arrived at Ferry Farm. 

    Figure 8: Ferry Farm cowries with modifications visible

    As their contexts of origin line up with the Washington House, the enslaved individuals who left them behind likely lived and worked close to the Washington family. This places them within the working realm of the house or the nearby work yard. For accommodation, the owner(s) may have occupied the Quarter adjacent to the Washington house or lived in one of the work yard’s support buildings. 

    Regarding the arrival of cowries on the plantation, this likely happened through the movement and exchange of people and goods. To provide the labor required to meet their goals, enslavers moved those they enslaved between different plantations as needed and expanded their workforce through the enslavement of more people or hiring of persons enslaved by others. This could account for the arrival of cowries at Ferry Farm. Alternatively, Ferry Farm’s proximity to the (port) city of Fredericksburg meant the enslaved community had access to a regional economy and trans-Atlantic vessels. Either network may have transported cowries to the city, but it additionally meant that Fredericksburg served as a meeting and trade point for those enslaved in the region. 

    Legacy 

    Cowries have a long and nuanced history in the Atlantic World. Beginning as a unit of currency and cultural symbol, cowries fell prey to the demands of the market, taking on a new role in the hands of foreign merchants. What once served to strengthen economies and nations suddenly worked to strip away the very people who inhabited West Africa. For those who endured enslavement, the cowries that accompanied them became symbols of a stolen home, a continuation of culture, and a determination to survive. Today, cowries remain important items in African and African American cultures by symbolizing their history as currency, continuing in self-adornment and ritual roles, and appearing prominently in works of art (Fig. 9-11).  

    Figure 9-11: Left: The Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO) tower in Cotonou, Benin, features cowrie shells on its facade Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International; ReThink Quarterly Center: 20-cedi coin from Ghana. Cedi, the Akan word for cowrie, is Ghana’s unit of currency Michael C. Carlos Museum
    Right: Beyoncé donning a cowrie headdress by Ivorian designer Lafalaise Dion Design Indaba

    Emma Schlauder

    Research Archaeologist

    Bibliography 

    Alpern, Stanley B.                                                                                                                                                  1995     What Africans Got for Their Slaves: A Master List of European Trade Goods. History in Africa 22: 5-43

    Equiano, Olaudah                                                                                                                                    1789     The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African. Written By Himself. London, UK

    Handler, Jerome S.                                                                                                                                                            2006     On the Transportation of Material Goods by Enslaved Africans During the Middle Passage: Preliminary findings from Documentary Sources. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter 9 (4): 1-22 (Article 16).

    2007     From Cambay in India to Barbados in the Caribbean: Two Unique Beads from a Plantation Slave Cemetery. African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter 10(1): 1-10 (Article 1)

    Heath, Barbara J.                                                                                                                                                2016     Cowrie Shells, Global Trade, and Local Exchange: Piecing Together the Evidence for Colonial Virginia. Historical Archaeology 50 (2): 17-46.

    National Museum of African American History & Culture                                                                        n.d.     Cowrie Shells and Trade Power. National Museum of African American History & Culture, Smithsonian, Washington D.C. <https://nmaahc.si.edu/cowrie-shells-and-trade-power>. Accessed 3 June 2024.                                                                

    Ogundiran, Akinwumi                                                                                                                                                            2002     Of Small Things Remembered: Beads, Cowries, and Cultural Translations of the Atlantic Experience in Yorubaland. The International Journal of African Historical Studies 35 (2/3): 427-457.

    Pallaver, Karin                                                                                                                                                 2023     Cowries, the currency that powered West Africa. ReThink Quarterly 7 <https://rethinkq.adp.com/artifact-cowries-west-africa/>. Accessed 3 June 2024.

    Pearce, Laurie E.                                                                                                                                              1992     The Cowrie Shell in Virginia: A Critical Evaluation of Potential Archaeological Significance. Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, College of William & Mary. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, MI.

    Radburn, Nicholas J.                                                                                                                                       2009     William Davenport, the Slave Trade, and Merchant Enterprise in Eighteenth-Century Liverpool. Master’s thesis, Department of History, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand.

    Samford, Patricia                                                                                                                                              1994     Searching for West African Cultural Meanings in the Archaeological Record. African Diaspora Newsletter 1 (3): 1-3 (Article 2).

  • Bread Talk: A Slice of History in Colonial America

    In 2020, many of us spent a great majority of our time at home.  This gave us the opportunity to get creative and explore new hobbies.   One such hobby that became a viral sensation, plastered across social media, food blogs, and television news outlets, was that of baking bread.  Bread has been around in some form for nearly as long as human civilization, although before industrialization, it was a means to survive, not just a fun challenge for the amateur baker.  So here is a crumb of history on bread and what this glutinous baked good was like in Colonial America. 

    To start with the basics, bread is made up of 3 simple ingredients: Flour, water, and a leavening agent.  Typically salt and some kind of sweetening, like sugar or honey, are also added.  Everything else is extra.

    Wheat flour was (and still is) the most common ingredient used for bread.  Wheat quickly became a desirable crop in Colonial America.  We can infer wheat was grown on Lewis family land based on documentation of family members paying for goods in wheat.  Biological remains in the ground found by archaeologists at Ferry Farm suggest wheat was planted there too.  Wheat and other crops were planted, cared for, and harvested by enslaved laborers on both plantations.  Wheat specifically was a difficult crop to care for, requiring vast knowledge and careful timing to produce a fruitful harvest.  Wheat is a form of grass, usually not well digested or particularly nutritious to humans.  When wheat is ground into flour, put through the fermentation process of breadmaking, and baked, it becomes far more digestible, nutritious, and caloric for people to eat.  For most of Europe’s history, bread was about half of calorie intake for poorer classes, and wheat still makes up about 20% of people’s diets today. 

    Records of Betty Lewis’ accounts with Andrew Parks totaling £6.13.2. Payment by cash and wheat.
    Wheat kernel recovered from Ferry Farm.  Scale = 1mm grid. Credit: Justine McKnight.

    In the early 18th century, sieves made of fine Chinese silk that allowed for separating the bran from the wheat seed made whiter flour easier to obtain.  Although the bran is the most nutritious part of wheat, it quickly became associated with the poor and lower classes in many Western European cultures.  White bread was a sign of wealth.  This led to bakers putting additives like alum, lime, and chalk into bread to make it whiter.  Despite British Parliament passing laws regulating ingredients allowed in bread, it continued to be an ongoing issue throughout the 18th and 19th centuries.[1]  Even with contemporary knowledge about the benefits of whole grains, 70% of bread baked today is white, based on this century old principle of white flour’s superiority.[2]

    By the time Colonial America comes into the picture, bread is engrained into life.  This is so much so that most 18th century cookbooks do not have bread recipes in them as it is assumed everyone already knows how to make basic table bread. That’s right, Hannah Glasse does not have a simple bread recipe in The Art of Cookery.  It is just the three simple ingredients worked into a dough with the hands that is set aside to rise, then baked until a strong crust forms, after all.  This is something foreign to us in a time when sliced bread is $1.99 in the supermarket.  There is no need for us to spend hours baking bread ourselves in this modern age, but when you made bread every week or every day, it was something as simple as getting dressed or brushing our teeth is now. 

    Kneading bread dough in a wooden dough bowl.

    In urban areas, bakers were trained in the art of breadmaking, but in rural places, it was left to the individual household to make their own bread.  Trained or not, the science behind breadmaking on a molecular level was not understood until the 19th century.  What they did know was that they needed a leavening, or rising, agent in their bread to ensure it rose properly.  Leavened bread came into existence in Egypt about 6,000 years ago.  Bread could be made without a rising agent, but it would be a completely different texture.  In the 18th century, leavening agents came from a few different places.  Barm is the frothy substance on the top of beer after production and is the perfect rising agent for bread, making connections between bakers and brewers in urban areas imperative.  Also, just leaving dough to sit for a day or two to collect the bacteria in the air, from the kneader’s hands, and from the dough bowl with leftover dough bits can also be enough to leaven a batch of dough.[3]  This method of collecting bacteria from the dough’s surroundings is reminiscent of creating a sourdough starter.

    Loaves of bread were placed into a bake oven, a large cast iron Dutch oven, or on a hot hearth.  Regulating temperature was up to the expertise of the cook or baker, there was no temperature dial like we have on our modern oven.  And despite this, when the temperature is kept controlled, the baking process takes about the same amount of time as it does in a modern oven.  The physical baking process is about the same both ways. 

    Bread cooking in dutch oven.
    Bread cooking in dutch oven on the hearth

    Whether you prefer white or whole wheat bread, I hope this entry has given you a grain of insight on the importance of bread throughout history.  Breaking the bread down in this article may make it sound simple, but I will say from experience that getting the dough smooth, the crust tender, and the crumb coat correct is no easy task.  Put that loaf over coals from the hearth and you add a whole new element of challenge.  Reflect on the enslaved cook at Kenmore or Ferry Farm who was responsible for not only making bread, but three meals a day, along with planning and prepping ingredients for future meals.  Cooking and baking in an 18th century kitchen were physically and mentally challenging, making it one of many difficult jobs for those enslaved on southern plantations.  I suggest everyone try baking a loaf for themselves.  To me, it is a task that humanizes food production and reminds us of its delicate nature now and throughout time.

    Loaves of bread made on the hearth at Kenmore for Taste Through Time program.

    Allison Ellis

    Manager of Public Programs

    [1] Federation of Baking. “Fact Sheet No. 9 – the History of Bread.” Last modified 2011. https://www.fob.uk.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/FS-9-History-of-Bread.pdf.

    [2]  Pollen, Michael.  Cooked: A Natural History of Transformation. New York: Penguin Books, 2014.

    [3] Edlin, A. A Treatise on the Art of Bread-making. London: J/ Wright, St. John’s Square for Vernor and Hood Poultry, 1805.

  • Meet the 2024 Field Crew

    The dig is in full swing, and we are a little over halfway through our 11-week dig season. Over the past few weeks, we have made lots of new exciting discoveries, and as you may have noticed, added quite a few new faces to our crew.

    Hosting a field school from the University of South Florida as well as interns from colleges and universities around the country has more than doubled our crew this season. While this is definitely awesome in itself, the fact that the entire field school and crew are women makes this year’s dig stand out even more. Now before we get into why an all women dig is so impressive, lets meet our crew.

    Front Row Left to Right: Alaina, Srin, Sarah, Sofia. Second Row: Abbie, Amelie, Rosie, Lindsay. Third Row: Kate, Rachel, Kellina. Back Row: Danielle, Judy.

    Srinidhi

    “Srinidhi is from Lithia, Florida. She just recently graduated from the University of South Florida with a bachelor’s degree in history. She plans on attending graduate school sometime in the future. Outside of school, Srinidhi enjoys reading high fantasy novels, playing video games, and hanging out with her dog, Felix.”

    Lindsay Marrion

    “Lindsay Marrion, from Niceville, Florida, attends the University of South Florida for English and Art History. She hopes to continue her education in graduate school, with dreams of working in academia one day. Outside of school, Lindsay in as avid reader and writer, and she loves an adventure of any kind.”

    Alaina Scapicchio

    “Alaina Scapicchio is a doctoral student at the University of South Florida in Tampa. She did her first field school at Ferry Farm in 2018 and now she is the graduate assistant for this year’s field school. Her dissertation is focused on public memory and the commemoration of witch trials in colonial America. She is the owner of two senior citizen fat cats named Tazz and Amira who she misses very much.”

    Sofia Almeida

    “Sofia Almeida is an incoming History PhD student at the University of South Florida. She recently completed her MA thesis on the digitization of historic Black cemeteries in Florida. Moving forward she is interested in American history, historic archaeology, and memory. Outside of school, she enjoys reading, playing guitar, and going on adventures with friends.”

    Amelie

    “Amelie is from Tucson, Arizona and is studying Biology, French, and Anthropology at the University of Arizona. She enjoys reading, hiking, and weightlifting and aspires to travel the world.”

    Rosie Muraca

    “Rosie Muraca is from Fredericksburg, VA. This is her first time working as a field student. She plans to attend Mount Holyoke College in the spring. When she is not digging, she is spending time with her two cats.”

    Kellina

    “Kellina is a rising junior at Yale University. She is an anthropology major from Spotsylvania, VA and she hopes to work in museum conservation. Spending the summer at the Ferry Farm archaeological dig has given her a better understanding of artifacts prior to their museum life and deepened her understanding of American history.”

    Kate McDonald

    “Kate McDonald Yaun is a rising freshman at Sewanee: The University of the South. She is studying Environment Arts and Humanities. Her hobbies include playing her viola, reading, and spending time outdoors.”

    Abbie Wood

    “Abbie Wood graduated from UVA in 2023 with a B.S. in Anthropology and a B.S. in Archaeology. This is her second dig season at Ferry Farm and the fourth overall, following a collections management museum internship. She has a passionate interest in caring for artifacts and history.”

    Sarah

    “Sarah came to Ferry Farm as a student of Virginia Commonwealth University in the summer of 2014. She has participated in half a dozen summer digs as an intern at Ferry Farm since then. Her favorite artifacts consist of the more personal items people had such as buttons, beads, sewing pins and Ferry Farm’s famous and abundant collection of colonial wig hair curlers.”

    So back to why an all women crew is so awesome. Well, our crew illustrates how women are gaining ground in a previously male dominated field. Historically, many professional positions in archaeology were held by men, but times are changing.

    Hopefully we will see some of these faces again somewhere down the archaeology pipeline, or wherever their futures may take them.

    Danielle Arens

    GWF Archaeologist

  • Horsing Around: Archeological Finds at Ferry Farm

    Think about a portrait or painting of George Washington.  What is a common element in the paintings?  His uniform, yes, he is indeed painted quite a bit in his impressive military uniform. But how about a horse?  George is often painted riding beautiful horses with a quiet dignity and noble appearance we expect from the father of our country. 

    Washington at Verplanck’s Point by John Trumbull, Source: Winterthur

    However, the horses in these paintings are not mere symbols of wealth or power. They are depicted with George because, from a tender age, his life has been intertwined with these creatures. As a surveyor, soldier, landowner, farmer, gentry, commander-in-chief, and president, he was inextricably linked with horses, not just as a mode of transportation but as a vital part of his daily life.

    And it all started at Ferry Farm…

    George moved to Ferry Farm around 1738 at the age of six. His father, Augustine Washington, was a member of the “planter class,” or Colonial American gentry. This meant he was a prominent member of society, involved in politics, and owned lots of land. Augustine purchased 150 acres across the river from Fredericksburg and later added an additional 450-acre parcel.  In total, he owned Little Hunting Creek, Pope’s Creek, and the Ferry Farm properties. 

    The point?  Augustine needed help because there were places to be, people to see, and fields to farm.  So, horses were a fundamental necessity for the Washington family, and George would have grown up around them, taking care of them and learning to ride.

    We have two great sources that give us some understanding of the horse situation at Ferry Farm. First, in 1743, the Washington patriarch died, leaving behind a widow, an 11-year-old George, and a probate inventory. On page two of the inventory, three horses and one mare are listed.

    Augustine Washington Probate Inventory, 1743

    Secondly, some pretty cool horse tack dating from the Washington occupation has been found during various archeological digs.

    The Finds

    One of the most universally known horse tack, essential for all horse maintenance – is the horseshoe.  The horseshoe was used to protect the hooves because “…being rendered subservient to the use of man…applied to severe and continued labour, and compelled to tread frequently…on the irregular and stony surface of the roads, it became necessary to secure his feet from ruin by strengthening them with the iron band which we call a shoe” (Vial de Saint Bel, 1793).  These shoes were handmade with no standardization across makers in shape, narrowness, or thickness. (Hume, 2001).  This makes it difficult to pinpoint and assign a time on shape alone.

    Farrier Shoeing a Horse by Marechal Ferrant et Operant Source: The Wellcome Collection

    Our horseshoe was found in the second cellar of the Washington Home. It is quite wide between the branches (the curving sides), and the toe seems to straighten a bit at the center. The crease (the groove that runs down the sides) gives enough depth to allow the shoe to be firmly attached to the hoof with six nails (which we found a few originals). (University of Zurich, 2024)  This find illustrates that there was active shoeing and horse maintenance going on at the farm.  Additionally, these horses were ridden or used for farm work because shoes were used to protect the hooves from the wear and tear of hard roads, distribute the horse’s weight evenly on uneven ground, and provide traction on various surfaces. 

    Horseshoe with original nails

    Another artifact found in the cellar of the Washington Home, the stirrup, further demonstrates horse riding as a family necessity. (Cofield, 2014) 

    Stirrup

    The stirrups are used as foot support for the rider, and they hang from a saddle on straps known as stirrup leathers.   Basic stirrups are made of three parts the eyes for the stirrup leathers to attach the stirrup to the saddle, a platform or base where the rider places their foot, and arms which connect the eye to the base. (Cofield, 2014)

    Examples of Stirrup Forms Source: Diagnostic Artifacts in Maryland

    Horseback riding master and author VS Littauer described the Forward Seat as a stirrup-centric approach versus traditional riding’s seat-centric. He argued riding without stirrups taught people to grip with the knee, which he considered a dangerous habit and likely to stiffen the rider. With stirrups, you can ride with a looser knee, letting your weight flow PAST your knee and into the stirrup. That is a more secure approach than riding with the thigh and knee. (Littauer, 1962)

    Captain Vladimir Littauer – Forward Seat Riding,1947

    Stirrups allow the rider’s legs to absorb up/down motion by allowing them to stand in matching balance with the horse, which makes riding longer distances more comfortable. Augustine certainly had to travel a great distance to check on his properties and perform his civic duties, like serving as a justice of the peace and sheriff for the county of Westmoreland. 

    One final utilitarian bit of horse tack found again in the cellar is a mullen mouth bit or snaffle bit. This bit consists of two rings on each side of a half-moon-shaped bar with no joint.  The bit applies even pressure on the horse’s tongue and bars (gums) and allows the horse’s lips to feel the pressure from the bit and side rings.  The bit, bridle, and reins function to create communication between the rider and the horse.

    Mouth Bit

    The Washington children would have used bits to learn to control.  They would have learned how to work with the horse in a cooperative way that would create an effortless and seamless ride.  George used this skill of communication and intuition to become a great rider.  As Thomas Jefferson reminisced in a letter in 1814, “his person, you know, was fine, his stature exactly what one would wish, his deportment easy, erect, and noble; the best horseman of his age, and the most graceful figure that could be seen on horseback.” (National Archives, n.d.)

    Lastly, just south of “The Quarter,” we uncovered around twenty leather ornaments.   They were used to decorate the leather straps, nosebands, harnesses, and reins of horses.  We wrote a post about them earlier explaining their purpose, which was purely aesthetic. Horse tack could be made without these pieces, but where is the fun in that?  These flashy accessories were a great way to grab the attention of the public and hint at how fashionable and elegant you were as you trotted through town.    

    Ferry Farm leather ornaments dating from the 1700s
    This copper-alloy mount dates from the mid-to-late 1700s


    These artifacts illustrate that not only were horses actively used by the family, but it also fostered an environment where young George would have taken his first steps into learning about horsemanship.  This knowledge and skill would help him in his future careers of surveying the Shenandoah Valley, as a lieutenant colonel during the French and Indian War, as a farmer and landowner at Mount Vernon, as a representative in the House of Burgesses, as commander-and-chief of the Continental Army and finally President of the United States. 

    Come see our new pop-up exhibit at Ferry Farm, where all these wonderful artifacts are displayed and put together with the help of our Fleming-Smith scholar, Sarah Moore.

    References

    Cofield, S. R. (2014, May 14). Stirrups. Retrieved from Diagnostic Artifacts in Maryland: https://apps.jefpat.maryland.gov/diagnostic/SmallFinds/Stirrups/index-stirrups.html

    Hume, I. N. (2001). A Guide to Artifacts of Colonial America. New York: Vintage Books.

    Littauer, V. S. (1962). The Development of Modern Riding. Washington D.C.: D.Van Nostrand Company, Inc.

    National Archives. (n.d.). Thomas Jefferson to Walter Jones, 2 January 1814. Retrieved from Founders Online: https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-07-02-0052

    University of Zurich. (2024). Fullering. Retrieved from E-Hoof: https://e-hoof.com/glossary/en/fullering/

    Vial de Saint Bel, C. (1793). Lectures on the Elements of Farriery. London: Veterinary College, London.

  • Happy Birthday, Mr. President!

    Not every president gets their birthday celebrated every year with a federal holiday, but George Washington, a favorite of his countrymen and the first president, has had that privilege since 1879. But one year was a little different from the others: 1932.  It marked Washington’s 200th birthday, and the United States was going to make a big deal about it. 

    In honor of the upcoming birthday, we decided to look at some of the memorabilia in our collection created to celebrate and educate the American public.   

    George Washington Bicentennial Commission

    The planning for this celebration started early when Calvin Coolidge signed a joint resolution that established a commission to oversee the bicentennial ceremonies on Dec 2, 1924.  The resolution was to mark the occasion of the birthday across the country and increase the understanding of Washington. (George Washington Bicentennial Commission, 1932)  Under the direction of Representative Sol Bloom, an experienced entertainment promoter who got his start at the 1893 World’s Colombian Exposition, the committee initiated thousands of events, released educational resources for students, and had plays written in honor of Washington. (Larson, 2004)

    Handbook of the George Washington Appreciation Course for Teachers and Students
    “Washington Takes the Risk”, including George Washington, Fielding Lewis, and Betty Washington Lewis

    The commission additionally worked with over 250,000 local commissions to organize special events at not only a federal level but a state and city too. (The Washington Post, 1932) Special volunteers and prominent local people were often given commemorative metals as thanks for their service.  We have one from the state of New York.  It is a circular bronze medal attached to a blue and white ribbon.  The back of the medal states, “1779 / Planned Sullivan / Clinton Campaign 1782 / Newburgh Temple Hill / Refused a crown / 1789 April 30th / New York City / Inaugurated first / President of the / United States.” 

    The medal is encased in a paper envelope with “New York State / George Washington Bicentennial Commission / In appreciation of / Services generously / Rendered to the / Commission / During / 1932” written on the front along with the signature Charles Tobin, chairman representing New York state on the Bicentennial Commission. 

    New York State George Washington Bicentennial Commission, 1932
    New York State George Washington Bicentennial Commission Medal, 1932
    New York State George Washington Bicentennial Commission Medal, 1932

    Historical Context Help: The Sullivan-Clinton campaign was ordered by George Washington in response to the 1778 attacks by the Iroquois and British in central New York.  Newburgh Temple Hill was a Continental Army encampment near Washington’s headquarters, where he gave a speech to quell the mass of soldiers who were getting ready to mutiny and attack Congress to get their promised back pay and pensions. Finally, in 1789, George was sworn in as President at Federal Hall in New York City.

    Calling All Philatelists

    Washington Post, Jan 2, 1932

    The U.S. Post Office became involved in the commemoration of George with the release of a dozen stamps celebrating his life.   The stamps were incredibly popular, and when they were first released for sale in D.C., there was a crowd of 50,000 people waiting to get their set of stamps. (The Washington Post, 1932)

    Commemoration celebrating George Washington’s visit to Kenmore on April 8, 1791, as part of the birthday celebrations. Note the stamps.
    Commemoration of George Washington’s birth at Wakefield. Note the stamps.

    Marketing George

    Private companies even got in on Washington-mania by releasing all types of souvenirs like postcards, pins, coins, bottles, calendars, cigar box covers, books and pamphlets, hat stands, billheads, stationary, cartes-de-visite, playing cards, and puzzles. (Subseries 5.8. Washington’s Birthday, Bicentennial Souvenirs, 1931-1932 , 2024)

    We have two bottles created for the Bicentennial celebration.  The green water bottle has a likeness of George with “Washington/Bicentennial” underneath the image and 1732 and 1932 written on the sides.  The water bottle was produced by the Hemingway Glass Company in Muncie, Indiana. 

    Bicentennial glass bottle, Hemingway Glass Co., 1932
    Bicentennial glass bottle, Hemingway Glass Co., 1932

    The clear pear-shaped bottle is embossed on one side with a cherry tree and the dates “1732 and 1932”.  On the other, with a profile of Washington.  It was created by the Owens-Illinois Glass Co. of Huntington, West Virginia.

    Bicentennial bottle with George Washington profile. Owens-Illinois Glass Co., 1932.
    Bicentennial bottle with cherry tree. Owens-Illinois Glass Co., 1932

    Plates were another big commemorative item.  We have three plates issued by Crown Ducal, with the same scene of “Washington and his Mother” based on the print of the same name.  On the back with the Crown Ducal crest, it says, “George Washington Bicentenary Memorial Plates / 1732-1932 / First in War / First in Peace / First in the hearts of his countrymen”.  Crown Ducal released a series of twelve plates documenting Washington’s life.  Of course, we are a little biased and like the one with his mother, Mary Ball Washington, the best.

    Some companies even brought in Mrs. Martha Washington, like this set of plates from the Capital Souvenir Company.  These are two round commemorative plates depicting George and Martha Washington, both with an elaborate floral gilded border.

    George and Martha plate set, Capital Souvenir Company, 1932.
    George and Martha plate set, Capital Souvenir Company, 1932.

    Fun Bicentennial Fact:  On the eve of the birthday, Sears Roebuck was awarded a commission by the U.S. government to create a full-scale replica of Mount Vernon at the Exposition Coloniale Internationale in Paris.  The agreed-upon price was around $75,000, and every detail of the home was reproduced from brass hardware, mantelpieces, and even cabinets.  After the exposition, the house was bought by an American doctor working in Paris, and it was relocated to Vaucresson (a western suburb of Paris).  It still stands today as a private residence and was even on the market in 2012 for 27 million dollars.     

    George Washington’s Mount Vernon in Paris, France,1932
    George’s Mount Vernon in Vaucresson, France today

    Sears Roebuck also built the exact replica in Prospect Park, Brooklyn, NYC for the Bicentennial Commission. However, the house was not taken care of and boarded up and abandoned until it was eventually torn down. (The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 1933) 

    Sears’ role in the reconstruction of Mount Vernon led to interest in their kit homes.  In 1932, they offered a house in their catalog, loosely based on Mount Vernon.  This model was oddly called “The Jefferson”.

    Sears Roebuck house kit “The Jefferson” which strangely resembles Mount Vernon.

    While we may not have as many George souvenirs, we are still putting on a big birthday party to celebrate George Washington and his time at Ferry Farm. 

    The party is on Monday, February 19th from 10am – 3 pm.  While enjoying the grounds of Ferry Farm, you can take a selfie with “George Washington,” participate in our annual stone-throwing contest, play colonial games, and eat birthday cupcakes (while supplies last).

    Additionally, guests can enjoy several educational stations, take an abbreviated Washington House tour, and talk with archaeologists, historians, and other experts to learn about Ferry Farm and the Washington Family.

    Heather Baldus

    Collections Manager

    References

    George Washington Bicentennial Commission. (1932). History of the George Washington Bicentennial Celebration. Washington D.C.

    Larson, E. (2004). The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair That Changed America. New York City: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.

    Subseries 5.8. Washington’s Birthday, Bicentennial Souvenirs, 1931-1932 . (2024). Retrieved from The George Washington Presidential Library at Mount Vernon: https://archives.mountvernon.org/repositories/3/archival_objects/14635

    The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. (1933, June 14). Fate in Doubt On Park Replica of Mt. Vernon. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, p. 5.

    The Washington Post. (1932, January 2). 50,000 Stand In Line to Get New Stamps. The Washington Post, p. 1.

    The Washington Post. (1932, January 5). Bicentennial Stamps Profit. The Washington Post, p. 6.

  • What’s on your Thanksgiving table?

    Thanksgiving is next week, and families and friends across the United States will gather again to celebrate the past year’s blessings. 

    Days for giving thanks have been proclaimed throughout history for many reasons – most often to celebrate a bountiful summer or fall harvest, the end of a war, or even the beginning of a new nation. George Washington proclaimed a one-time day of Thanksgiving on Thursday, November 26, 1789, “to be devoted by the People of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being, … for the civil and religious liberty with which we are blessed, and the means we have of acquiring and diffusing useful knowledge; and in general for all the great and various favors which he hath been pleased to confer upon us.”.

    The 1769 Thanksgiving Day Proclamation by George Washington

    Individual states have proclaimed specific Thanksgiving days throughout the nation’s early years. Still, it wasn’t until 1863 when President Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation designating the last Thursday of November “as a day of Thanksgiving” to be observed by all “fellow citizens in every part of the United States.” The nation was still suffering through the Civil War. Lincoln included a remembrance of “all those who have become widows, orphans, mourners or sufferers in the lamentable civil strife in which we are unavoidably engaged, and fervently implore the interposition of the Almighty Hand to heal the wounds of the nation and to restore it as soon as may be consistent with the Divine purposes to the full enjoyment of peace, harmony, tranquillity, and Union.”

    1863 Thanksgiving Day Proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln

    As the traditional vision of Thanksgiving is based upon the 1621 New England harvest feast shared by the Pilgrims of Plymouth, Massachusetts, and their new friends, the Wampanoag tribe, the November holiday is associated with an abundance and display of fall harvest foods. A table laden with a wide spread of traditional foodstuffs is the norm, but what’s underneath all that food is what I’m interested in!

    Jennie Brownscombe’s 1925 very idealized version of the first Thanksgiving

    Our best china! Sometimes, it’s Grandma’s china, brought out of the basement, dusted, and cleaned off for the occasion. Other times, it’s our wedding china, if you are of that generation that still wants or received wedding china. Other times, it’s unique dishes made and decorated for the occasion (think turkey-shaped plates!). Dinner plates, salad and butter plates, serving platters and bowls, condiment vessels, punch bowls, sauceboats for the gravy, dessert plates, tea, and coffee services, crustal wine glasses – the variety can be tremendous, and the different table wares are utilized to display and serve specific foods and finished dishes.

    Turkey Plate if that’s your thing.
    Turkey shaped gravy boat and cranberry sauce dish…an absolute necessity on a Thanksgiving table

    Mary Washington, as a member of the gentry class in Colonial Virginia, would have been well-versed in setting a stylish dinner table for family and guests. Formal dining habits during the 18th century slowly evolved to dinners consisting of multiple courses of food prepared and served in a more elaborate and complicated fashion. Cookbooks of the age detailed the possible menus for different seasons and even produced drawings of how each course’s dishes were laid out on the table. Elizabeth Rafferty’s 1769 The Experienced English Housekeeper includes a copperplate drawing illustrating one such arrangement for the second course of a dinner. Hours could be spent looking up how some of her dishes were prepared, such as “Pistacha Cream,” “Potted Lampreys,” or “Transparent Pudding Covered With a Silver Web.”

    Second course dinner layout from The Experienced English Housekeeper, 1769

    Fragments of highly specialized ceramics excavated at Ferry Farm, the plantation Mary called home for much of her life, speak to her efforts to set a stylish table for guests. Numerous highly decorated (molded or painted) creamware vessels, including sauceboats, plates, platters, oval and round serving bowls, condiment bowls, casters, serving spoons, and tea wares, are in our collection and speak to the refinement of her table. Porcelain was the most desirous of tablewares, but its sheer expense was prohibitive for Mary except for limited items, such as teawares. Creamware, however, was within her budget and was extremely fashionable during the third quarter of the eighteenth century in English society.

    Mary also had a fancy white salt-glazed stoneware fruit dish in her collection. This dish, and possibly an accompanying pierced bowl, would serve local and non-local produce such as grapes, figs, oranges, pineapples, apples, peaches, and pears. Fresh fruit, especially during off-season times, was expensive as it had to be shipped in from warmer climates. However, its presence on the table indicated a measure of wealth and, consequently, status within the gentry lifestyle. Mary needed to maintain her gentry status for herself, but more importantly, for her children and their future success in the stratified society in which they lived.

    Dish, 1760-1775 in Kenmore Collection
    Fragments of a white salt-glazed fruit dish excavated at Ferry Farm

    So, what’s on your table this Thanksgiving?

    Judy Jobrack

    Archaeology Field Director